Structure And Properties Of Ibuprofen

Structure And Properties Of Ibuprofen Ibuprofen, which is a member of the propionic acid group of Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory, drugs (NSAIDs). Ibuprofen is a racemic mixture of [+]S- and [-]R-enantiomers. Ibuprofen contains contains a stereocenter in the ÃŽ ±-position of the  propionate  moiety. Studies shown that [+]S -ibuprofen was the active form and it showed activity in both in-vivo and in-vitro. Ibuprofen is white to off-white in colour and occurs as a crystalline powder, with a melting point of 74 ° to 77 °C. It is practically insoluble in water, but readily soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol and acetone. Ibuprofen has a pKa value of 4.43 ±0.03 and an n-octanol/water partition coefficient of 11.7 at pH 7.4. The chemical name for ibuprofen is ( ±)-2-(p-iso-butylphenyl) propionic acid. The molecular weight of ibuprofen is 206.28. Its molecular formula is C13H1802. Mechanism of action The major action of Ibuprofen and all other Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and is the inhibition of the cyclooxygenase enzyme or the COX enzymes and hence inhibiting the synthesis of prostaglandins. These cyclooxygenase enzymes catalyse the reaction of synthesis of prostaglandins and thromboxanes from arachidonic acid, which in turn is synthesized from phospholipids by the action of the phospholipase enzyme. The prostaglandins and thromboxanes are then responsible for the synthesis of various inflammatory mediators. There are two types of cyclooxygenase enzymes namely, cyclooxygenase enzyme-I (COX-I) and cyclooxygenase enzyme-II (COX-II). COX-I is a constitutive enzyme which is released in most of the body tissues including the blood platelets. COX-I performs a house-keeping role in the body and is involved in the tissue homeostasis. Whereas, COX-II is present in the inflammatory cells and is responsible for the production of prostanoid mediators, which are responsible for inf lammation, pain and fever. Therefore, inhibition of the COX-II leads to the anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic and analgesic activity of ibuprofen and whereas on the other hand, inhibition of COX-II is responsible for the unwanted effects of ibuprofen in the gastric mucosa and on platelet aggregation. In 2002, a study reported that, ibuprofen selectively inhibits a new variant  of the  COX enzyme that was totally different  from the  then known two variants of cyclooxygenase enzymes, the COX-I and  COX-II. This iso-enzyme is now referred as the COX-III enzyme. Study also showed that this COX-III enzyme was only expressed in the  brain and  in the  spinal cord. Its exact  mechanism  and actions is still poorly understood, but future research  may provide  further insight into how it works. A study on rats has shown that administration of ibuprofen increases the  bioavailability of serotonin (5-HT) in rats and evidence for a similar mechanism  in humans was also found. Chronic ibuprofen doses in rat showed down-regulation of central 5-HT2A receptors and  an increase  in the  number of serotonin transporter proteins. In 2006, a study showed that ibuprofen is converted to N-arachidonoyl phenolamine, or AM404, a compound known as an endogenous cannabinoid reuptake inhibitor and it indirectly activates the  CB-I cannabinoid receptor, resulting  in analgesia. This activity was proven through the  induction of a CB-I receptor antagonist  which  resulted in the  reversal of the  analgesic action  of ibuprofen. Pharmacokinetics Absorption Ibuprofen is well absorbed from the gastro intestinal tract. The peak plasma level of ibuprofen is reached within 1 to 2 hours. It was shown in a study that absorption of ibuprofen is faster in fasting conditions. Food affects the rate of absorption of ibuprofen but the extent of absorption remains unchanged. The study also showed that, ibuprofen when administered with food delays the time taken for peak plasma concentration by approximately 30-60 minutes. Distribution Ibuprofen like the other agents of its class is highly protein bound. It was found in a study that about 90-99% of ibuprofen was protein bound at a concentration of 20 µg/ml and this binding was non-linear. The volume of distribution ibuprofen changes with age and fever conditions. Studies reveal that febrile childrens less than 11 years old have volume of distribution approximately 0.2 L/kg, while adults have volume of distribution approximately 0.12 L/kg. Metabolism Ibuprofen is extensively metabolised in the liver to form inactive metabolic compounds. Ibuprofen is mainly metabolised by glucoronidation reaction. A study showed that majority of the ibuprofen dose was recovered in the urine as hydroxy phenyl propionic acid (25%) and carboxy propyl phenyl propionic acid (37%) metabolites. Elimination Ibuprofen and its inactive metabolites are rapidly and completely excreted by the kidney. About 95% of the administered dose of ibuprofen is eliminated in the urine. The elimination half-life of ibuprofen is in the range of 1.9 hours to 2 hours. Pharmacological activity Ibuprofen has the following pharmacological actions on the biological system Antipyretic effect Analgesic effect Anti-inflammatory effect Antipyretic effect A normal body temperature is regulated by a centre in the hypothalamus that ensures a balance between heat loss and heat production in the body. Therefore, the hypothalamus maintains a normal temperature of the body and thus it acts as a thermostat. When there is a disturbance in this hypothalamic thermostat, temperature of the body set by the hypothalamus is raised, fever occurs. Ibuprofen and other Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs reset this rise in the temperature. It regulates various temperature regulatory mechanisms such as dilation of superficial blood vessels, sweating etc. to reduce the temperature. Ibuprofen and other NSAIDs do not affect the normal temperature. Ibuprofen and other NSAIDs are thought to act as antipyretic agents by inhibiting the prostaglandin production in the hypothalamus. During an inflammatory reaction, the bacterial endotoxins cause a release of a pyrogen-IL-1 from macrophages. This release of pyrogen stimulates the generation of E-type prostaglandins in the hypothalamus, this in turn causes the elevation of temperature. There are evidences that prostaglandins are not the only mediators of fever, hence ibuprofen and other NSAIDs may have some alternate mechanisms for their antipyretic activity which is not yet known. Analgesic effect Ibuprofen is mainly effective against pain associated with inflammation or tissue damage. This is due to the inhibition of prostaglandins that sensitise nociceptors to inflammatory mediators such as bradykinin. Therefore ibuprofen is effective against pains that are associated with increased prostaglandin synthesis. Their ability to relieve headache may be related to the inhibition of the vasodilator effect of prostaglandins on the cerebral vasculature. There are some evidences that ibuprofen have a central effect by an action mainly in the spinal cord where it inhibits the COX-III enzyme. This action of ibuprofen is not yet clearly known. Anti-inflammatory activity Many chemical mediators are released when there is a stimulus of an inflammatory and allergic response. This response leads to vasodilation, increased vascular permeability, cell accumulation, etc., which are produced by several mechanisms. Furthermore, different mediators may be of particular importance in different inflammatory and allergic conditions. Ibuprofen reduces mainly those components of the inflammatory and immune response in which mediators produced by COX-II enzyme action plays a significant part. The components inhibited by ibuprofen are vasodilation, oedema and pain. Ibuprofen has no effect on those processes which contribute to tissue damage as in chronic inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis, vasculitis and nephritis. Uses of ibuprofen Ibuprofen is used to treat a wide range of illnesses such as headaches, backache, menstrual cramps, dental pain, neuralgia, rheumatic pain, muscular pain, migraine, arthritis and athletic injuries. Ibuprofen is also used to reduce fever and to relieve minor aches and pain caused due to common cold or flu.   In a recent study, it was found that ibuprofen was effective in the treatment of Alzheimers disease when given in low doses over a long period of time. A study also showed that ibuprofen is associated with a lower risk of Parkinsons disease, and ibuprofen may help in delaying and prevent it. . Adverse effects of Ibuprofen Ibuprofen appears to have  the  lowest  incidence of adverse  drug  reactions  (ADRs)  when compared to all other  non-selective  NSAIDs. However, this only holds  true  at lower doses of ibuprofen. Common adverse  effects of ibuprofen with the gastrointestinal tract include nausea, dyspepsia, heartburn, gastrointestinal ulceration and bleeding, diarrhoea, loss of appetite, stomach pain. Effects on central nervous system include headache, dizziness, fatigue and nervousness. Hypersensitivity reactions include skin rashes, itching. In very rare cases ex-foliative dermatitis and epidermal necrolysis has been observed. Infrequent  adverse  effect includes- oesophageal ulceration, heart failure, hyperkalaemia, renal impairment, confusion,  bronchospasm, and  salt and  fluid retention [11] Photosensitivity Like the other agents of the NSAIDs,  ibuprofen has also been reported to be  a photosensitising  agent.[12][13]  However, this only rarely occurs with ibuprofen and  it is considered to be  a very weak photosensitising  agent  when compared with other members of Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. This is because the  ibuprofen molecule contains  only a single phenyl moiety and  no  bond  conjugation,  resulting  in a very weak chromophore system and  a very weak absorption spectrum  which  does not reach  into the  solar spectrum. Cardiovascular risk Ibuprofen has been reported to elevate the  risk  of myocardial infarction,  particularly among  those taking chronically  high  doses of ibuprofen [14] Risk in pregnancy Studies have  found an increased risk  of miscarriage  with the  use of ibuprofen in early pregnancy; however, there are no thorough findings in  this association.  There are also  concerns  that drugs such  as ibuprofen may interfere with implantation of the  early foetus, although a clear risk has not been established. When ibuprofen is used as directed in the  first  and  second trimester of pregnancy,  it is not associated with an increased risk  for birth defects. However, ibuprofen is generally not used  during  pregnancy because there are concerns  with their  use during  the  third trimester. Ibuprofen Overdose Ibuprofen is the most commonly and widely used Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory agent all over the world. Since, ibuprofen was licensed as an over the counter drug, ibuprofen overdose became a common phenomenon. The most common symptoms of ibuprofen overdose are unsteadiness, blurred vision, ringing in the ears, gastrointestinal, nausea plus vomiting, diarrhoea, stomach pain, probable loss of blood in intestinal areas or stomach or both, headache, agitation, drowsiness, incoherence and confusion etc. Sometimes more serious symptoms are also noticed in some victims, such as seizure, gastrointestinal bleeding, metabolic acidosis, respiratory depression, hyperkalaemia, tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, coma, hepatic dysfunction, renal failure, cyanosis, and cardiac arrest etc., however these symptoms are very rare. The  severity of symptoms varies with the ingested dose  and  the  time elapsed. However, individual sensitivity also plays  an important  role. Generally,  the  symptoms observed with an overdose  of ibuprofen are similar to the  symptoms caused by  an overdose of other NSAIDs. Doses of ibuprofen below 100 mg/kg are less likely to produce any toxic effects. But doses of ibuprofen above 400 mg/kg are considered an overdose and can result into any of the above consequences.

Christianity in Crime and Punishment :: Crime Punishment Essays

Christianity in   Crime and Punishment      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fyodor Dostoyevsky wrote, " If someone succeded in proving to me that Christ was outside the truth, and if, indeed, the truth was outside Christ, then I would sooner remain with Christ than with the truth" (Frank 68). It was by no means easy for Dostoyevsky to reach this conclusion. In Dostoyevsky's life, one sees that of an intellectual Prodigal Son, returning to the Father In Heaven only after all other available systems of belief have been exhausted. Reared in a devout Russian Orthodox home, Dostoyevsky as a young man rebelled against his upbringing and embraced the anarchist (and atheistic) philosophies of the intelligentsia, radical students and middle class intellectuals violently opposed to the status quo in Nineteenth-Century Russia (Morsm 50). Dostoyevsky revolutionary stirrings were not unnoticed by the Tsar's secret police, and, in 1849, Dostoyevsky was sentenced to a mock execution followed by ten years' hard labor in a Siberian prison (Morsm 50).      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One critic said "It has been customary to say that Dostoyevsky re-learnt Christianity in prison." (A Boyce Gibson 19.) There, out of his element and surrounded by hardened criminals, he had plenty of time to contemplate life and read The New Testament (the only book he was allowed). However, it was not until his compulsory army service that Dostoyevsky's faith began to blossom. In the army, Dostoyevsky met a fellow officer and devout Christian named Baron von Vrangel, who befriended the still young Dostoevesky and helped him re-discover the Christian faith (Frank 4).      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Although a professing Christian for the rest of his life, Dostoyevsky was not a "plaster saint." (Until he died, he was plagued by doubts and a passion for gambling.) Instead, Dostoyevsky understood, perhaps better than any other great Christian author, that his faith was created and sustained by one thing only: the grace of God.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is of such grace that Dostoyevsky writes in Crime and Punishment. Although most critics agree that Crime and Punishment's theme is not as deliberately Christian as Dostoyevsky's latter works, the novel's voice is still authentically Christian. Written in 1864, shortly after Dostoyevsky lost his first wife, his brother, and a close friend (Gibson 32); Crime and Punishment

Social Media Strategy – Retail Boutique

The Plaid Door – Social Media strategy Goals  : – Awareness – Generate new leads, which will in turn result in paying customers. So your social media strategy will be centered around targeting new prospects and drive them to your website and to the Plaid Door boutique. This would include some very targeted campaigns. – Customer service / Interaction. You want to use Social Media to be able to communicate with your customers much better and to be able to dynamically interact with them on a daily basis in order to really build those relationships.Your strategy here then would be much more about manning your page, instant responses to questions & queries. Target audience  : * Mostly women * Aged between 20 and 55 Social-Media sites  : Facebook / Twitter  / Pinterest Social Media Site #1: Facebook Facebook was created in 2003, and since then it has grown into the largest site for peer-to-peer connection and communication. A Facebook page allows organi zations to garner fans and post updates. It also allows for solid feedback, as fans can â€Å"like† certain posts or they can comment on them in opposition.Organizations can even arrange to have to have their name as part of the Facebook page URL for easy access and recognition. Many nonprofit groups have seen success through hosting contests and posting special information on their pages. Recommendations  : 1. Add Like Box on your website. Like Box is a social plug-in which you add on your website so your visitors are able to like your page directly from your website. They just need to be logged in. Your visitors most likely will like your fan page since they also can stay updated liking your fan page.This is great way to promote your Facebook fan page. 2. Post/tweet about your new Facebook page. You should inform your readers or twitter followers about your new Facebook page. Make post or update about it and tell them why they should join. 3. Reward your fans or make a co ntest. You can reward your fans if they help you promote Facebook fan page. Also you can make a contest and reward those who referred your page to most people. As a reward you can offer some coupons or rebates on  «Ã‚  private shopping night  Ã‚ » You can run â€Å"fans only† contests, so more people tend to join and like your page. . Use Facebook ads. You can spend some money to advertise your page using Facebook advertising marketing tool. Create multiple adverts to help build an audience for your Page. Use the targeting options to show your adverts to only the people you want reach. See which versions of your adverts work best 5. Influence the friends of your fans. Encourage check-ins, participation in events or create an offer to encourage more activity on your Page. When people interact with the content on your Page, their friends are eligible to see the activity.When people do things such as like, comment or check-in to your Page, you can promote those activities to their friends. 6. Connect Twitter and Facebook. You can connect those two social medias using Involver. com so whatever you post on Twitter should be  posted on Facebook page and vice versa. 7. Hold a weekly event. Pick one day or one hour every week and pick one activity to do repeatedly every week, for example a tutorial on how to refashion clothes. Start promoting your event every week to your friends / fans, build up to it on the wall, create a facebook event about it and invite all your friends.Just start slowly and gradually more and more people will hear about it and begin to attend your weekly event. 8. Hold a caption contest. For example on refashioned clothes. 9. Use Facebook’s Questions feature to poll your fans for their opinions. 10. Always respond to likes / comments / shares etc. Your appreciation will encourage engagement. 11. Post photos. Images are one of the biggest activities online. For example you can post photos of some new arrivals clothes, of the P laid Door boutique, people working at the Plaid Door†¦ 12. Ask your likers to â€Å"Suggest to Friends† on a monthly basis.Post a Status Update and send an Update to fans asking them to suggest your page to their Facebook friends. Let them know that they can easily suggest your page by clicking the ‘Suggest to Friends' link just under your Page's image in the left column. Inspiring your Likers to help build your community is one of the easiest ways to quickly grow your supporter base. 13. Get your organization's staff and volunteers involved. Ask those people closest to your nonprofit to support your Facebook page by posting comments and liking your posts. Encourage them to include the Plaid Door social information on their email signature. 4. Post about branded clothes you have. Make it special; encourage people to come check this out so they can get a good deal. 15. Set up a Google Alert for your organization’s name to keep track of what people are saying. Social Media Site #2: Twitter Over the past few years, the popularity of Twitter has exploded. Twitter is essentially a forum to share messages, but these messages have a 140-character limit. Although this might restrict some of the creative opportunities for businesses, there are still ways to push out meaningful information. Recommendations  : 1. Use Hashtags Strategically.Twitter does a great job of grouping topics together through the use of â€Å"hashtags. † A hashtag is symbolized by the â€Å"#† character and it can be put before any word. This hyperlinks the word, and it is then clumped together with similar tweets. Now, there is some science to this. Twitter has a feature on the left-hand side on the screen that lists â€Å"trending topics† for the given geographical region. This is essentially a list of topics that people have hashtagged and are interested in at that time. If an organization can somehow find a way to tie in one of these trending t opics to its tweet, it has a better chance of being seen.This is difficult because the trending topics won't always be totally relevant, but having a creative mind that can make the two messages connect will do wonders for an organization's exposure. 2. Distribute Coupons and Discounts. Twitter is a great platform for distributing special offers and hosting contests. For example, you could tweet about a 30 percent off coupon, but make it applicable only to those who can show that they received the tweet on their computer or phone. Another example: you could host a contest, such as offering a prize to the person who re-tweets the organization the most or recruits the most followers.This allows companies to form more personal relationships with their target demographics. Social Media Site #3: Pinterest Pinterest, which launched in 2010, has grown to more than 10 million users. Every day, people use the website to â€Å"pin† images and videos to their personal pin boards so the y can save and share the things they love. The site gets social when people follow each other and repin or comment on each other’s pins. Pinterest's users tend to be women, and the majority of them are 25 to 54 years old, according to recently released demographic data.Although there are some exceptions, most content on Pinterest falls into stereotypically female niches, including home decor, recipes, crafts and apparel. This corresponds to your target audience. Recommendations  : 1. Add a â€Å"Pin It† Button to Your Organization's Website. By adding a â€Å"Pin It† button to your organization's website, visitors then have the option to pin any of the images from your site on one of their boards. 2. Get the Community Involved. Pinterest is a good way to facilitate community involvement.This ensures that people are actually interacting with their community, and it allows the organization to get to know its customers and donors on a more intimate level. 3. Enc ourage Employees To Pin. Pinterest is far from static. Users are pinning every minute and it can quickly become a challenge for an organization to stay on top of its ball game. In order to make sure that your organization is in front of the competition, you can encourage all workers to open a Pinterest account and create boards. They can then pin images that are relevant to the organization's values and overarching goals.A somewhat lesser known fact is that Pinterest users can actually upload and pin videos as well as still photographs. 4. Create group pinboards and crowdsource?. Create group pinboards and invite other users to pin content to those boards. For example, ask customers to pin pictures of themselves using your products. You also could hold a contest to crowdsource pins. Ask customers to review your business or product on your website and pin a quote from their review to a special contest pinboard. You benefit from more reviews and a pinboard that’s filled with te stimonials. 5. Don’t use pinterest for direct marketing?.Pinterest states that the site should not be used for direct marketing, advertising or sales. Excessive and overt self-promotion is clearly unacceptable, so make sure you’re pinning diverse content, not just pictures of your products. You need to get creative and use Pinterest for indirect marketing. For example, fill pin boards with seasonal items, color coordinated images, gift ideas and so on. 6. Don’t pin anything and everything?. Stay focused, but don’t be afraid to pin interesting content that your target audience would enjoy and that’s at least loosely connected to your business.Such content can help give your brand more personality. For example: You can create boards about hairstyle or home decor or craft, these subject are relevant to your target audience. 7. Give your followers a look at your non-profit from behind the scenes. Pin images that show staff and volunteers working with y our organization, as well as those who benefit from that work. It’s a good idea to show supporters the human faces behind your logo. 8. â€Å"Photo of the Day†. You can create a board where you will pin everyday of photo of an new item in the Plaid Door Boutique. . Create a board with tutorials on how to refashion clothes. 10. Repin/Highlight Other Non-Profits. Like all forms of social media, Pinterest isn’t a place to over-promote. Avoid this is by mixing original pinning with repins of images from other non-profits within your sphere of influence. Users receive an email notification when their images are repinned and they are credited on your repin, which can increase their following. The non-profit you repin may return the favor, allowing Pinterest to become a channel for valuable, non-disruptive cross-promotion.

Feminism In The Necklace - 1068 Words

Feminist Analysis of Guy de Maupassant’s The Necklace. In recent decades, feminism has attracted attention from different individuals who fight for equal treatment of both genders. As defined by many researchers, feminism is the advocacy of equality between male and females. This concept began when people realized that the traditional roles of men and women provide a lot of injustice to women. According to Barry â€Å"The women’s movement’ of the 1960s was not, of course, the start of feminism. Rather it was a renewal of an old tradition of thought and action already possessing its classic books which had diagnosed the problem of women inequality in the society and proposed solutions† (124). Traditionally a man was viewed as the head of the†¦show more content†¦This plot implies that although Mathilde was very beautiful and charming she had no advantage of an upper-class girl for example of a distinguished family or things that are coveted by women. Some of the keywords that help us to understand the injusti ce in this concept are charming, married off and distinction. Charming means attractive and it helps to create a picture of how admirable the lady was. The fact that she was charming implies that she could have attracted the attention of wealthy men who could become her husband. Secondly, the term married off means that she was forced to be the wife of the clerk. This implies that she was denied the freedom to choose her husband. This is a clear manifestation of patriarchy in the society where the role of woman in decision making was not acknowledged at all. Lastly, the term distinction means excellence or prominence. The term â€Å"distinction† helps to explain the presence of prominent men in the society who could give Madame Loisel a luxurious life that she demanded. Unfortunately, she had no means of getting them since her parents had already made marriage decision. 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